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An ionic bond is a chemical bond formed by the transfer of electrons from one atom to another, resulting in the formation of oppositely charged ions that are held together by electrostatic attraction.
Example:
In sodium chloride (NaCl):
Sodium loses one electron → Na⁺
Chlorine gains one electron → Cl⁻
An ionic bond is the strong attraction between oppositely charged ions formed after electron transfer.
A covalent bond is a type of chemical bond formed when two atoms share one or more pairs of electrons to achieve a stable electron configuration (usually a full outer shell).
Typically occurs between non-metal atoms.
Example:
H₂: Each hydrogen atom shares one electron → single covalent bond.
O₂: Two oxygen atoms share two pairs of electrons → double covalent bond.
A metallic bond is when metal atoms share a “sea” of electrons that hold the solid together.
In metallic bonding, positive metal ions are arranged in a lattice and are surrounded by a “sea” of delocalized electrons.
Occurs when two atoms in a covalent bond have different electronegativities.
The more electronegative atom attracts the shared electrons more strongly creating:
A partial negative charge (δ⁻) on the more electronegative atom
A partial positive charge (δ⁺) on the less electronegative atom
This polarity allows molecules to interact through dipole–dipole forces and hydrogen bonding if applicable.
Example:
H–Cl: Chlorine is more electronegative → δ⁻ on Cl, δ⁺ on H
Carbon has 4 valence electrons and forms 4 single covalent bonds with hydrogen atoms.
There are no lone pairs on the carbon atom.
Electron pairs repel each other equally, and Valence Shell Electron Pair Repulsion theory (VSEPR) theory predicts they will arrange themselves as far apart as possible.
Lattice energy is the energy released when gaseous ions combine to form one mole of an ionic solid, or equivalently, the energy required to completely separate one mole of an ionic solid into its gaseous ions.
Example:
Sodium chloride (NaCl) has lower lattice energy than magnesium oxide (MgO) because Mg²⁺ and O²⁻ have higher charges.
Hydrogen bonding occurs when hydrogen is bonded to a highly electronegative atom such as nitrogen (N), oxygen (O), or fluorine (F). This creates a very strong partial positive charge on hydrogen, leading to a strong attraction to lone pairs on nearby electronegative atoms.
Metallic bonding is defined by electrostatic attraction between metal cations and a sea of delocalized electrons.
In metallic bonding, positive metal ions are arranged in a lattice and are surrounded by delocalized valence electrons that are free to move throughout the structure. These electrons are not bound to any one atom.
Solvation (hydration) is the process where water molecules surround ions, keeping them separated and dissolved in solution.
When an ionic compound (salt) is placed in water:
Positive ions (cations) are attracted to the negative end (oxygen) of water molecules.
Negative ions (anions) are attracted to the positive end (hydrogen) of water molecules.
These ion–dipole attractions between the ions and the polar water molecules are strong enough to overcome the ionic lattice forces, allowing the salt to dissolve.
A coordinate (dative) bond is a type of covalent bond in which both electrons in the shared pair are donated by the same atom.
Example:
In the ammonium ion (NH₄⁺), the nitrogen atom donates a lone pair to a hydrogen ion (H⁺) to form a coordinate bond.
In H₃N → H⁺, the arrow shows the direction of electron donation.
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